With the spread of Islam across continents and through the corridors of time, Ramadan’s observance was enriched by diverse cultural influences and historical contexts. From the simplicity and profound devotion of the early days, we now turn our gaze to the era of the Islamic Caliphates, where Ramadan would find new expressions and significance amidst the burgeoning Islamic civilization.

The observance of Ramadan in the early Islamic Caliphates was marked by the emphasis on fasting, communal prayers, and charity. The companions of Prophet Muhammad (SAW), who had firsthand experience of Ramadan’s early days, emphasized the importance of these practices. The simplicity and spiritual focus of Ramadan observed during the Prophet’s time were maintained, with a strong emphasis on the Quranic recitation and reflection. The Umayyad Caliphate saw the Islamic empire expand dramatically, bringing new cultures and traditions into the fold. The Abbasid period is often referred to as the Golden Age of Islam, marked by significant advancements in science, literature, and philosophy.

Under the Rashidun Caliphate: “Rightly Guided,” or “Perfect”, the first four caliphs of the Islamic community, known in Muslim history as the orthodox or patriarchal caliphs: Abu Bakr ( 632–634), Omar (634–644), Uthman (644–656), and Ali (656–661). The companions emphasized the simplicity and spiritual focus of Ramadan observed during the Prophet’s time with a strong emphasis on the Quranic recitation and reflection.

The 29-year rule of the Rashidun was Islam’s first experience without the leadership of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW). His example, however, in both private and public life, came to be regarded as the norm (Sunnah) for his successors.

The Rashidun were responsible for the adoption of an Islamic calendar, dating from Hijra, the flight from Mecca to Medina (622), and the establishment of an authoritative reading of the Quran, which strengthened the Muslim community and encouraged religious scholarship and also witnessed the formalization of Taraweeh prayers in congregation. There was also a controversy over ʿAli’s succession that split Islam into two sects, the Sunni (who consider themselves traditionalists) and the Shia (“party of Ali”), which have survived to modern times.

Taraweeh: The decision of the Prophet (SAW) not to gather people under one Imam for night prayers, fearing its potential obligation on the Umma, no longer applied after his death. Omar ibn Al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) recognized this change in circumstances and, as a result, initiated the congregational Taraweeh prayer under one imam.

This decision marked a significant shift from the previous practice where separate groups observed Taraweeh, even in the same mosque, paving the way for the community to come together under a single Imam for the Taraweeh prayer during the time of Omar ibn Al-Khattab.

There might be a misconception among some that Taraweeh prayer was established by Omar. However, it is crucial to clarify that Taraweeh was initiated by the Prophet (SAW). People saw the Prophet praying at night and decided to join. With time it became a full congregation and the Prophet had to stop it by announcing that if he had continued, he feared that Allah might include the Taraweeh as an obligatory prayer.

The term Taraweeh, derived from the Arabic word “Tarweeh,” meaning ‘rest’, likely came into use during or after the era of Omar (may Allah be pleased with him).

The names for voluntary night prayers as used in the Quran and Hadith are called night prayer (Salat al-Layl), Tahajjud, Qiyam, or Qiyam Ramadan. Taraweeh is the plural of the Arabic word Tarweeh, meaning rest. Worshippers used to engage in extended Rakat and take breaks in between, giving rise to the name Taraweeh.

The Umayyad Caliphate saw the Islamic empire expand dramatically, bringing new cultures and traditions into the fold. This era witnessed the further consolidation of Taraweeh prayers in congregation and the practice of Iftar and Suhoor began to incorporate a wider variety of foods, reflecting the diverse culinary cultures of the expanding empire.

The Abbasid Caliphate is often referred to as the Golden Age of Islam, marked by significant intellectual and spiritual revival, advancements in science, literature, and philosophy. During Ramadan, scholars and poets would gather to discuss religious and philosophical matters, enriching the spiritual atmosphere of the month, reminiscent of the modern day Ramadan lectures, tafsir and other intellectual gatherings. The tradition of Muktadirs, or public iftar, was established, where rulers would host lavish meals for the public, fostering a sense of community and solidarity. This is a practice that persists today where many contribute to funds for organizing Iftar at various mosques.

The Ottoman Empire, with its vast territories spanning Europe, Asia, and Africa, brought a new level of cultural richness and administrative sophistication to the observance of Ramadan. As the empire thrived, so did the traditions of Ramadan, which were celebrated with great fervor and communal spirit across its diverse lands.

The Ottoman Sultans played a central role in the Ramadan observance, embodying the unity of political and spiritual leadership. They participated in and often led the Taraweeh prayers, reinforcing the significance of communal worship during the holy month. The tradition of the Mahya lights, where mosques were adorned with illuminated messages of faith between their minarets, became a hallmark of Ottoman Ramadan, symbolizing the light of Islam.

As one of the Five Pillars of Islam—the fundamental acts of Islamic worship—Ramadan is rife with sacred traditions.

The beginnings and endings of Ramadan are ruled by the lunar cycles, and so the beginning of this holy month is typically heralded by the appearance of the new moon. At this time, many Muslims decorate their homes with lamps, lights, crescents, and stars. This tradition may have originated in Egypt, where, during the Fatimid Caliphate, Caliph al-Mu’izz li-Din Allah was greeted by lantern-holders to celebrate his rule. Although make no mistake—Ramadan isn’t a time for celebration, but rather for spiritual reflection.

The central activity of Ramadan is, of course, fasting. For the entire month, Muslims refrain from eating in day time, with the exception of those who are elderly, ill, or have any other condition which might preclude fasting.

This fasting must be intentional. The concept of niyyah—which means “intention”—guides the fasting of Ramadan.

After breaking the fast, but before eating dinner, Muslims offer the fourth of their five daily prayers—the Maghrib prayer, and after dinner, they make their way to their Mosques to offer the Isha prayer. This is followed by a special voluntary prayer called Taraweeh, which is offered by the congregation.

The Shafa and Witr prayers are essential night prayers in Islam, performed after the Isha prayer. But during Ramadan they are performed immediately after the Taraweeh prayers. However, those who wish to go the extra mile could wake up after a light sleep to perform the Tahajjud which may contain as many rakats a one may like.

The final ten days of Ramadan are considered some of the most holy. The 27^th night is of particular importance—this is called Laylatul Qadr, the “Night of Power.” This is the night that Muhammad (SAW) received his first revelation, and many Muslims spend this night praying and reciting the Quran.

After the 30 days of Ramadan have passed, the month concludes in a celebration, known as Eid-ul-Fitr, wherein Muslims gather to offer prayers of thanks.

This isn’t just a time for abstract reflection—Ramadan has a real, practical purpose that creates real changes within those who observe it. Ramadan is all about growing nearer to God or God Consciousness. Physically carrying out tasks solely for God helps Muslims to feel that He is a reality in their lives, and bequeaths a sense of purpose and direction.

It is also about developing and strengthening powers of self-control so that, throughout the rest of the year, sinful desires and thoughts can be better resisted.

Finally, Ramadan is a great time to learn and practice charity, kindness, and generosity. Deprivation and fasting helps Muslims to remember the plight of those less fortunate, as well as those blessings that may normally be taken for granted.

Above all, those who observe Ramadan find themselves with a chance to truly contemplate their faith and rid themselves of those bad habits they have accumulated over the previous year. It is a time unlike any other in the Islamic calendar, a sort of “reset button” for the soul.

For Muslims, Ramadan was founded so that humankind could benefit from its customs to change for the better, strengthening their bond with God and enabling themselves to make the world a better place.

The verses pertaining to the importance of fasting were revealed to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) in February 624 BC, or in the month of Shawwal in the second year of Hijrah (Migration).

O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint, (Quran 2:183)

After its revelation, the month of Ramadan was designated as the month of fasting in Islam, and fasting (Sawm) was included as one of the core 5 pillars of Islam. Fasting would now be from dawn to dusk, and it would be compulsory for all adult Muslims.

By the mercy of Allah (SWT), fasting was not imposed on everyone without exceptions! Muslims who were travelling, sick, or menstruating were made exempt from fasting.

Ramadan is the (month) in which was sent down the Koran, as a guide to mankind, also Clear (Signs) for guidance and judgment (between right and wrong). So every one of you who is present (at his home) during that month should spend it in fasting, but if anyone is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed period (should be made up) by days later. Allah intends every facility for you; He does not want to put you to difficulties. (He wants you) to complete the prescribed period, and to glorify Him in that He has guided you; and perchance ye shall be grateful. (Quran 2:185)

While fasting was an incredibly physically and mentally strenuous process back then, especially with the weather conditions, it has become much easier for Muslims now to observe their fast. All due to advancements in technology and transportation! Modern conveniences such as refrigeration and air conditioning are a massive help in alleviating some of the physical challenges of fasting.

Through it all, the changes in the observance of fasting during Ramadan over time highlight the enduring importance of this sacred time of year.

So, in a nutshell! Ramadan is not about starving oneself. The history of Ramadan is complex, it is a month of great blessings, a time of spiritual rejuvenation and magnification for Muslims all around the world that engage in worship and increase their awareness of God.

As we enter the month of Ramadan, let us remember the significance of this sacred month and the experience it brings. May it be a time of peace, love, and blessings for us and our loved ones! May Allah accept our fast, prayers, supplications, acts of compassion and sacrifice.

Rabbana atina fid dunya hasanatan wa fil Aakhirati hasanatan waqina ‘azab an-nar.

Barka Juma’at and happy weekend

Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, observed by Muslims as a month of fasting, prayer, reflection, and community, commemorating the revelation of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad (SAW).

The month is significant as it is believed to be the time when the Quran was revealed. Ramadan Fast became obligatory in 624CE or 2AH, second year after the Hijrah. The command was revealed in the month of Sha’ban in Medina, making fasting for the following month of Ramadan mandatory for Muslims. It was introduced to purify the soul and foster God-consciousness. The commandment was revealed in Quran 2:183-185. The Prophet(SAW) fasted nine Ramadans before his passing.

Ramadan Fast is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, which are fundamental acts of worship and practice for Muslims. The primary practice during this month is fasting (Sawm), where Muslims refrain from eating and drinking from dawn until sunset. This fasting is not just a physical act but also a time for spiritual reflection, increased devotion, and worship. Muslims are encouraged to engage in prayer (Salah), recitation of the Quran, and acts of charity during this month.

To understand the roots of Ramadan, we need to look back to 610 A.D., the momentous year when Muhammad (SAW) meditated in the cave of Hira, near Mecca. During this meditation, the angel Jibril visited him and revealed the first words of what would later be known as the Quran, explaining that Allah (SWT) is the one and only God. This marked the beginning of Islam and laid the foundation for the values that define it, including fasting. At this time in Arabia, polytheism was common, but the revelation established a new path cantered on monotheism. This first meeting with Jibril is known as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power), which many believe occurred on the 27th night of the lunar month of Ramadan. Allah knows best.

The observance of Ramadan (the word having become synonymous with Fasting) serves multiple purposes: it fosters a sense of community, encourages self-discipline, and enhances empathy for the less fortunate. It is a time for Muslims to purify their souls, seek forgiveness, and strengthen their relationship with Allah. The spiritual rewards for fasting are believed to be multiplied during this holy month, making it a deeply significant period in the Islamic faith.

In summary, Ramadan is not only a time of fasting but also a period of spiritual growth, community bonding, and reflection on one’s faith and actions. It has evolved over the centuries, maintaining its core significance while adapting to various cultural practices around the world.

From a historical perspective, before the advent of Islam, fasting was already a significant practice in many cultures and religions. The concept of fasting during certain periods of the year predates Islam and is a practice that was common in ancient civilizations, particularly in religious and spiritual contexts. Some of the notable examples of fasting in pre-Islamic cultures include:

Fasting, known as Ta’anit, is a practice rooted in Jewish tradition, where individuals abstain from all food and drink, including water, for a designated time. The Hebrew term for fasting, ẓwm cf. Sawm, signifies both the act of fasting and the fast itself. Fasting serves various purposes, including spiritual preparation, communal mourning, and atonement for sins. On Yom Kippur it is traditional for able-bodied adults to fast, consuming no food or beverages. Jews don’t fast on Shabbat or joyous holidays, so as not to interfere with the celebration (except when Shabbat coincides with Yom Kippur).

Christianity also has a long history of fasting. Early Christians adopted fasting as a means of penance and devotion. One of the key fasting periods in Christianity is Lent, which lasts for 40 days leading up to Easter. During Lent, Christians abstain from certain foods or luxuries as a way of mimicking the 40-day fast that Jesus undertook in the desert. In addition to Lent, early Christians observed other fasting days throughout the year, including those associated with specific saints or religious events.

In ancient Egypt, fasting was practiced for both religious and health reasons. The Egyptians believed that fasting helped to cleanse the body and soul. Ritual fasting was a common practice in many religious ceremonies, often connected with the worship of their gods and the afterlife. Priests and the elite class were especially dedicated to fasting as part of their spiritual discipline.

Fasting was practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia, although it wasn’t structured in the same way as the fasting observed by Muslims today. Many of the early Arab tribes would fast during times of mourning or as part of special religious observances. However, fasting was not institutionalized or prescribed as a year-round practice. Even before its prescription, Muslims fasted on specific days including Ashura. Instead, it was often episodic and based on local customs and tribal traditions.

Fasting as a spiritual discipline is not unique to Islam but is shared by many other religious and spiritual traditions. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism also incorporate fasting as an important ritual for purifying the body, mind, and spirit. In Hinduism, fasting is often linked to festivals, as well as to penance and devotion to particular deities. Similarly, in Buddhism, fasting is sometimes practiced as a means of gaining enlightenment, and in Jainism, fasting is an essential part of spiritual development.

The fasting practices of pre-Islamic cultures laid the foundation for the structured fasting observed in Islam today. With the advent of Islam, the practice of fasting was codified in the Qur’an, with clear guidelines and rules, such as the exclusion of food, drink, and sexual intercourse during the daylight hours, while also emphasizing the importance of self-reflection, spiritual growth, and charity.

Muslims across the world observe Ramadan in a way that has remained relatively consistent throughout the centuries. However, local customs and traditions often influence the practices associated with Ramadan, such as the foods prepared for iftar and suhoor, the way the fast is broken, and the communal aspects of prayer and worship. Despite these variations, the underlying purpose of Ramadan remains unchanged: to seek spiritual growth, self-purification, and an increased connection to God.

This sacred period, established more than 1,400 years ago, is not only a testament to the endurance of faith but also a mirror reflecting the rich tapestry of Islamic history and culture.

The observance of Ramadan, as commanded in the Quran, is a practice filled with deep spiritual significance. It commemorates the month in which the Quran was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (SAW), serving as a guide for personal conduct, spirituality, and community life. Beyond its religious implications, Ramadan has been a catalyst for cultural traditions, social bonds, and historical milestones throughout Islamic history.

As we embark on a “Journey through time,” to explore the evolution of Ramadan from its origins to the present day, we will traverse through the ages, from the early days of Islam, across caliphates and empires, through periods of change and challenge, to the global observance of Ramadan in modern times. Each era brought its own traditions, interpretations, and celebrations of Ramadan, enriching the practice with diverse cultural flavors and deepening its significance.

This exploration is not just a historical recount; it’s an invitation to appreciate the enduring spirit of Ramadan that transcends time and geography. It’s a story of how a month of fasting has continued to inspire millions, fostering a sense of unity and purpose across the Muslim world.

The Divine Inception

The inception of Ramadan as a sacred period of fasting is deeply rooted in the Islamic faith, tracing back to a night known as Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Decree). It was during this blessed night, believed to fall within the last ten days of Ramadan, that the Quran was first revealed to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) by the angel Gabriel. This momentous event marked the beginning of a new chapter in human history, laying the foundation for the observance of Ramadan.

In the early days of Islam, the observance of Ramadan was characterized by simplicity and profound devotion. Muslims would fast from dawn until sunset, refraining from food, drink, and other physical needs. The nights were marked by communal prayers (Taraweeh), and the breaking of the fast (Iftar) was typically done with dates and water, following the tradition of Prophet Muhammad (SAW).

The significance of Ramadan extended beyond the act of fasting. The communal aspects of Ramadan, such as sharing meals and engaging in extra acts of charity (Zakat and Sadaqah), fostered a strong sense of brotherhood and solidarity among the early Muslim community, as it still does.

As the early Muslim community embraced the practices and principles established during Ramadan’s inception, the observance of this holy month began to evolve. With the spread of Islam across continents and through the corridors of time, Ramadan’s observance was enriched by diverse cultural influences and historical contexts. From the simplicity and profound devotion of the early days, we now turn our gaze to the era of the Islamic Caliphates, where Ramadan would find new expressions and significance amidst the burgeoning Islamic civilization.

May Allah count us among the blessed that would witness the coming Ramadan and may He accept it as an act of Ibadah from us. May we start it with Bismillah and end it with Alhamdulillah.

Barka Juma’at and happy weekend

There is no such thing as Islamic science – for science is the most universal of human activities. But the means to facilitating scientific advances have always been dictated by culture, political will and economic wealth. What is only now becoming clear (to many in the west) is that during the dark ages of medieval Europe, incredible scientific advances were made in the Muslim world.

Geniuses in Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus and Cordoba (in Spain) took on the scholarly works of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, India and China, developing what we would call “modern” science. New disciplines emerged as well as major advances in medicine, astronomy, engineering and agriculture.

What the medieval scientists of the Muslim world articulated so brilliantly is that science is universal, the common language of the human race.

The mathematical sciences as practiced in the Islamic world during the apogee of Islamic civilization consisted of mathematics, algebra, and geometry as well as mathematical geography, astronomy and optics.

Muslims derived their theory of numbers (‘ilm al-a‘dad) in arithmetic from translations of the Greeks’ sources. Moreover, they acquired numerals from India (Hindu) and possibly China and made their use widespread. Mohammad Bin Ahmed in the tenth century invented the concept of zero or sifr. Thus the zero with the numerals made it possible for the simple expressions for numbers to have infinite values, thereby helping solve particular problems.

Muslims built mathematical models using the decimal system, expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, and each symbol accorded the value of position as well as absolute value. Many creative methods of doing multiplications were developed.

The word algebra comes from the title of a Persian mathematician’s famous 9th century treatise “Kitab al-Jabr Wa l-Mugabala” which translates roughly as “The Book of Reasoning and Balancing.” Built on the roots of Greek and Hindu systems, the new algebraic order was a unifying system for rational numbers, irrational numbers and geometrical magnitudes. The same mathematician, Al-Khwarizmi, was also the first to introduce the concept of raising a number to a power.

Another famous contributor to this field was Umar Khayyam, who studied cubic equations and algebra came to be regarded as a science in its own right. Thus the Muslims not only developed the methods of solving quadratic equations they also produced tables containing sine, cosine, cotangent and other trigonometric values.

Al-Battani (d.929) systematically developed trigonometry and extended it to spherical trigonometry, with important consequences for astronomy, geography and exploration beyond the known world, thus making the construction of better maps and the reconceptualisation of the structure of the planet Earth.

The book, On the Measurements of Planes and Spherical Figures, written on Archimedean problems by the three sons of Musa bin Shakir in the ninth century became known in the West through the translation by Gerard of Cremona.

Al-Khwarizmi was one of the first scholars to produce a detailed astronomical table (zij). This astronomical table provided the means of calculating the positions of the stars and planets. Al-Farghani, in the ninth century wrote a detailed account of Ptolemy’s Almagest and his book was used throughout Europe and central Asia for the next 700 years.

Muslim philosophers and astronomers had inherited the Ptolemaic planetary system that hypothesised the principle of uniform circular motion allowing the planets to move in epicycles. However, Muslim astronomers eventually came to reject this theory in that the epicyclic movement violated the principle of uniformity of motion.

In the thirteenth century, Al-Tusi, a Persian astronomer put forward his concept known as the “Tusi Couple”, a hypothetical model of “epicyclic motion that involves a combination of motions each of which was uniform with respect to its own center”(Turner).

This model was applied by Ibn al-Shatir to the motions of the heavenly bodies in the fourteenth century. Ibn al-Shatir’s formulations were the beginnings of verifying theoretical astronomy through systematic observations. Ibn al-Shatir’s theory of lunar motion was very similar to that attributed to Copernicus some 150 years later (Sabra, 2002).

Muslim scholars worked in all major branches of astronomy: theoretical and computational planetary astronomy, spherical astronomy and time keeping, instrumentation, and folk astronomy.

Around the year 1,000, the celebrated doctor Al Zahrawi published a 1,500 page Illustrated Encyclopedia of Surgery that was used in Europe as a medical reference for the next 500 years. Among his many inventions, Zahrawi discovered the use of dissolving catgut to stitch wounds. He also reportedly performed the first caesarean operation and created the first pair of forceps.

Now the Western world’s drink du jour, coffee, our good old morning brew, was first prepared in Yemen around the 9th century after its journey across the strait from Ethiopia. In its earliest days, coffee helped Sufis stay up during late nights of devotion. Later brought to Cairo by a group of students, the coffee buzz soon caught on around the empire. By the 13th century it reached Turkey, but not until the 16th century did the beans start boiling in Europe, brought to Italy by a Venetian trader.

“Abbas ibn Firnas was the first person to make a real attempt to construct a flying machine and fly.” In the 9th century he designed a winged apparatus, roughly resembling a bird costume. In his most famous trial near Cordoba in Spain, Firnas flew upward for a few moments, before falling to the ground and partially breaking his back. His designs would undoubtedly have been an inspiration for famed Italian artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci’s hundreds of years later.

The University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco, founded in 859 CE by Fatima al-Fihri, is recognized by Guinness World Records and UNESCO as the world’s oldest continuously operating, degree-granting university, evolving from a mosque into a leading Islamic educational center.

“Many of the most important advances in the study of optics come from the Muslim world.” Around the year 1000 Ibn al-Haytham (965-1041) proved that humans see objects by light reflecting off of them and entering the eye, dismissing Euclid and Ptolemy’s theories that light was emitted from the eye itself. This great Muslim physicist also discovered the camera obscura phenomenon, which explains how the eye sees images upright due to the connection between the optic nerve and the brain. This is what would produce the ubiquitous ‘pin-hole camera.

According to Hassani, the Prophet Mohammed (SAW) popularized the use of the first toothbrush in around 600. Using a twig from the Meswak tree, he cleaned his teeth and freshened his breath. Substances similar to Meswak are used in modern toothpaste.

Many of the basics of modern automatics were first put to use in the Muslim world, including the revolutionary crank-connecting rod system. By converting rotary motion to linear motion, the crank enables the lifting of heavy objects with relative ease. This technology, discovered by Al-Jazari in the 12th century, exploded across the globe, leading to everything from the bicycle to the internal combustion engine.

“Hospitals as we know them today, with wards and teaching centers, come from 9th century Egypt.” The first such medical center was the Ahmad ibn Tulun Hospital, founded in 872 in Cairo. Tulun hospital provided free care for anyone who needed it — a policy based on the Muslim tradition of caring for all who are sick. From Cairo, such hospitals spread around the Muslim world.

Muslim scientists and inventors, including Arabs, Persians, and Turks, were probably hundreds of years ahead of their counterparts in the European Middle Ages. They drew influence from Aristotelian philosophy and Neo-Platonists, as well as Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy, and others. The Muslims made innumerable discoveries and wrote countless books about medicine, surgery, physics, chemistry, philosophy, astrology, geometry and various other fields.

Abu Nasr Al-Farabi (872–950) also known as Alpharabius, an Arab scientist and philosopher is considered as one of the preeminent thinkers of the medieval era.

Al-Battani (858–929). Arab mathematician, scientists and astronomer who improved existing values for the length of the year and of the seasons.

Ibn Sina (980–1037) also known as Avicenna, Persian philosopher and scientist known for his contributions to Aristotelian philosophy and medicine.

Ibn Battuta (1304–1369) also known as Shams ad–Din. Arab traveler and scholar who wrote one of the most famous travel books in history, the Rihlah.

Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi (780–850) also known as Algoritmi or Algaurizin. His works introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and the concepts of algebra into European mathematics.

Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901) Also known as Thebit. Arab mathematician, physician and astronomer; who was the first reformer of the Ptolemaic system and the founder of statics.

Abu Bakr Al-Razi (865–925) also known as Rhazes. Persian alchemist and philosopher, who was one of the greatest physicians in history.

Jabir Ibn Haiyan (722–804) also known as Geber. The father of Arab chemistry known for his highly influential works on alchemy and metallurgy.

Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (801–873). Arab philosopher and scientist, who is known as the first of the Muslim peripatetic philosophers.

Ibn Zuhr (1091–1161) Also known as Avenzoar. Arab physician and surgeon, known for his influential book Al-Taisir Fil-Mudawat Wal-Tadbeer (Book of Simplification Concerning Therapeutics and Diet).

Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) was a groundbreaking Arab historian and philosopher, best known for his work “Muqaddimah,” which laid the foundations for modern historiography and sociology.

Ibn Al-Baitar (1197–1248) Arab scientist, botanist and physician who systematically recorded the discoveries made by Islamic physicians in the Middle Ages.

We could go on and on, but suffice to say that no people have the monopoly of knowledge, particularly where science and mathematics are concerned. Credits must always be given where it is due.

“O Allah, increase me in knowledge and understanding. O Revealer of secrets, O Knower of the unseen and hidden matters, remove the veils from the faces of knowledge and questions so that I may see their reality. Protect me from mistakes or misguidance. You are the One who grants success in all matters, and You are the All-Knowing of the unseen. O Allah, grant me the understanding of the Prophets, the memory of the Messengers, and the inspiration of the close angels, by the honor of our master Muhammad (SAW), the leader of the first and the last. May Allah send His blessings upon our master Muhammad (SAW), his family, and all his companions. Aaaameee

Barka Juma’at and a happy weekend, as we prepare earnestly for the month of Ramadan.

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